Complete Notes · Heredity से Joints तक
| Trait | Dominant ✅ | Recessive ❌ |
|---|---|---|
| Seed Shape | Round (गोल) | Wrinkled (सिकुड़ा) |
| Seed Colour | Yellow (पीला) | Green (हरा) |
| Flower Colour | Purple (बैंगनी) | White (सफेद) |
| Flower Position | Axial | Terminal |
| Plant Height | Tall (लंबा) | Short (छोटा) |
| Pod Shape | Inflated (फूला) | Constricted (सिकुड़ा) |
| Pod Colour | Green (हरा) | Yellow (पीला) |
Pea Plant क्यों चुना? 4 कारण:
जब contrasting traits वाले parents cross किए जाते हैं, तो offsprings में सिर्फ dominant trait दिखता है। Recessive trait छुप जाती है।
Gametes बनते समय gene variants (alleles) के pairs एक-दूसरे से अलग (separate) हो जाते हैं। हर gamete को सिर्फ एक allele मिलती है।
Gamete formation के दौरान दो या ज्यादा different genes के alleles independently (एक-दूसरे से independent होकर) sort होते हैं। यानी एक gene की allele दूसरे gene की allele को affect नहीं करती।
वह biological system जो decide करता है कि कोई organism Male होगा या Female। Genetic, chromosomal, environmental factors पर based।
| Region | Vertebrae | याद रखें |
|---|---|---|
| Cervical (गर्दन) | 7 | C1-C7 |
| Thoracic (ऊपरी पीठ) | 12 | T1-T12 |
| Lumbar (निचली पीठ) | 5 | L1-L5 |
| Sacral | 5 → fuse → 1 Sacrum | S1-S5 |
| Coccygeal (Tailbone) | 4 → fuse → 1 Coccyx | Tailbone |
1st to 7th pair
Vertebrosternal Ribs
8th to 10th pair
Vertebrochondral Ribs
11th & 12th pair
Vertebral Ribs
3 × 2 = 6 bones (दोनों arms)
27 + 3 (arm) = 30 per arm → 60 bones (दोनों arms)
4 × 2 = 8 bones (दोनों legs)
26 × 2 = 52 bones (दोनों feet)
360° rotation (सभी directions में)
E.g. Shoulder, Hip
180° motion (door की तरह open/close)
E.g. Elbow, Knee
Left/right twisting on single axis
E.g. Neck (Atlas-Axis)
Short flat sliding movements
E.g. Wrist, Ankle
2-way movement (up/down + side/side)
No full rotation
2-way movement
(Oval joints के लिए)
Enamel = Body का सबसे कठोर (Hardest) हिस्सा — Calcium phosphate से बनी
16 upper jaw + 16 lower jaw (wisdom teeth including)
| Type | Count (1 jaw) | Function |
|---|---|---|
| 🔪 Incisors | 4 (per jaw) = 8 total | Biting और Cutting food |
| 🐺 Canine | 2 (per jaw) = 4 total | Tearing food |
| 🔧 Premolars | 4 (per jaw) = 8 total | Grinding food |
| 🦷 Molars | 6 (per jaw) = 12 total | Chewing और Crushing food |
Total: 20 teeth
Formula: I=2, C=1, M=2 per half jaw
212/212 × 2 = 20
Total: 32 teeth
Formula: I=2, C=1, PM=2, M=3 per half jaw
2123/2123 × 2 = 32
| Topic | Key Fact |
|---|---|
| Father of Genetics | Gregor Johan Mendel | Pea plant (Pisum sativum) पर experiment |
| Law 1 — Dominance | Contrasting parents cross → सिर्फ dominant trait दिखता है F1 में |
| Law 2 — Segregation | Gamete बनते time alleles separate होती हैं | हर gamete = 1 allele |
| Law 3 — Indep. Assortment | Different genes की alleles independently sort होती हैं |
| Monohybrid F2 ratio | Phenotype = 3:1 | Genotype = 1:2:1 |
| Dihybrid F2 ratio | 9:3:3:1 (4 types of offspring) |
| Phenotype vs Genotype | Phenotype = दिखने वाले traits | Genotype = Genetic makeup |
| Sex determination | Father's sperm decide करता है | Mother = always X | Father = X या Y |
| Female chromosomes | XX (23 pairs total — 22 autosomal + 1 sex) |
| Male chromosomes | XY |
| Turner's Syndrome | XO — Female में 1 X missing |
| Klinefelter's Syndrome | XXY — Male में extra X |
| Adult bones | 206 | Children = 300 |
| Axial bones | 80 | Appendicular = 126 |
| Spinal cord bones | 26 (Cervical 7, Thoracic 12, Lumbar 5, Sacral 1, Coccyx 1) |
| Atlas bone | Scalp को spine से connect करती है — head support |
| Rib cage | 24 ribs + 1 sternum = 25 | True(1-7), False(8-10), Floating(11-12) |
| Skull bones | 22 total (Cranial=8, Facial=14) | Mandible = only movable bone |
| Ear bones | 6 total (3 per ear) — Malleus, Incus, Stapes |
| Arm bones | 3 per arm (Humerus, Radius, Ulna) | Both arms = 6 |
| Hand bones | 27 per hand (Phalanges 14, Metacarpals 5, Carpals 8) |
| Leg bones | 4 per leg (Femur, Patella, Tibia, Fibula) | Both = 8 |
| Foot bones | 26 per foot (Tarsals 7, Metatarsals 5, Phalanges 14) | Both = 52 |
| Femur | Thigh bone = Body की सबसे लंबी और मजबूत bone |
| Ball & Socket joint | 360° rotation — Shoulder, Hip |
| Hinge joint | 180° — Knee, Elbow |
| Pivot joint | Left/right twist — Neck (Atlas-Axis) |
| Fibrous joint | No movement — Skull sutures |
| Cartilaginous joint | Slight movement — Vertebrae, Ribs+Sternum |
| Enamel | Body का hardest part — Calcium phosphate से बना |
| Adult teeth | 32 | Milk teeth = 20 |
| Incisors | Biting & Cutting | Canine = Tearing | Premolar = Grinding | Molar = Chewing |
| Dental formula (Adult) | 2123/2123 × 2 = 32 | Milk = 212/212 × 2 = 20 |
| Homologous organs | Same structure, different function — Common ancestor |
| Analogous organs | Different structure, same function — No common ancestor |
| Heredity unit | Gene (made of DNA) |
| Dominant trait | 1 या 2 dominant alleles से express होती है |
| Recessive trait | दोनों alleles recessive हों तभी express होती है |