RISE NOTES · Biology Notes

Genetics & Skeletal System

Complete Notes · Heredity से Joints तक

📋 Topics at a Glance

1
Heredity & Variations
2
Types of Traits & Alleles
3
Gregor Mendel — Father of Genetics
4
Mendel's 3 Laws of Inheritance
5
Monohybrid Cross (3:1 Ratio)
6
Dihybrid Cross (9:3:3:1 Ratio)
7
Sex Determination
8
Skeletal System — Overview
9
Axial Skeleton
10
Skull & Ear Bones
11
Appendicular Skeleton
12
Bone Counts — Arm, Hand, Leg, Foot
13
Joints — Synovial, Fibrous, Cartilaginous
14
Teeth & Dental Formula
15
Homologous & Analogous Organs
16
Quick Revision Table
🧬 PART 1 — GENETICS
1

Heredity & Variations

🧬 Heredity क्या है?

  • Parents से offspring को genes के through traits pass होने की biological process
  • Eye colour, blood group, genetic disorders — सब इसी से transmit होते हैं
  • Heredity की basic unit = Gene (made of DNA)
  • Physical, behavioural और physiological traits सब heredity से आते हैं

🔀 Variations क्या हैं?

  • एक species के individuals में traits में differences
  • Genetic variations या environmental factors से
  • Variation survivability के लिए जरूरी है
  • Sexual organisms में ज्यादा variation होता है (asexual में कम — सिर्फ 1 parent)
2

Types of Traits & Alleles

📌 Types of Traits

  • Acquired Traits: जीवनभर में environment से develop हों। E.g. Bike चलाना, Teaching
  • Inherited Traits: Parents से DNA के through मिलें। E.g. Eye colour, Blood group
  • Qualitative Traits: जैसे Eye color
  • Quantitative Traits: जैसे Height, Blood pressure

🔗 Alleles

  • Genes के alternate forms — chromosome पर same location पर
  • Same trait को control करते हैं लेकिन different effects produce करते हैं
  • Dominant Traits: जब एक या दोनों alleles dominant हों तब express होता है
  • Recessive Traits: जब दोनों alleles recessive हों तभी express होता है

🌿 Pea Plant — Dominant vs Recessive Traits

TraitDominant ✅Recessive ❌
Seed ShapeRound (गोल)Wrinkled (सिकुड़ा)
Seed ColourYellow (पीला)Green (हरा)
Flower ColourPurple (बैंगनी)White (सफेद)
Flower PositionAxialTerminal
Plant HeightTall (लंबा)Short (छोटा)
Pod ShapeInflated (फूला)Constricted (सिकुड़ा)
Pod ColourGreen (हरा)Yellow (पीला)
3

Gregor Mendel — Father of Genetics

👨‍🔬 Mendel के बारे में

Pea Plant क्यों चुना? 4 कारण:

4

Mendel के 3 Laws of Inheritance

⚖️ Law 1 — Law of Dominance

जब contrasting traits वाले parents cross किए जाते हैं, तो offsprings में सिर्फ dominant trait दिखता है। Recessive trait छुप जाती है।

🔀 Law 2 — Law of Segregation

Gametes बनते समय gene variants (alleles) के pairs एक-दूसरे से अलग (separate) हो जाते हैं। हर gamete को सिर्फ एक allele मिलती है।

🎲 Law 3 — Law of Independent Assortment

Gamete formation के दौरान दो या ज्यादा different genes के alleles independently (एक-दूसरे से independent होकर) sort होते हैं। यानी एक gene की allele दूसरे gene की allele को affect नहीं करती।

5

Monohybrid Cross (3:1 Ratio)

🌿 Monohybrid Cross क्या है?

🧪 F1 Generation

  • Tall (TT) × Short (tt) cross किया
  • सभी offspring: Tt (Tall)
  • Genotype: Tt | Phenotype: All Tall
  • Recessive trait छुप गई

🧪 F2 Generation (Self-fertilization)

  • F1 (Tt × Tt) → F2
  • Genotype ratio: TT : Tt : tt = 1:2:1
  • Phenotype ratio: Tall : Dwarf = 3:1
  • Recessive trait वापस आई!
3
Dominant (Tall) Plants
:
1
Recessive (Short) Plants
= Monohybrid Cross F2 Phenotype Ratio
6

Dihybrid Cross (9:3:3:1 Ratio)

🌿 Dihybrid Cross क्या है?

🧪 F1 Generation

  • सभी offspring: YyRr
  • Phenotype: सभी Yellow Round
  • दोनों dominant traits दिखीं
  • कोई recessive trait नहीं दिखी

🧪 F2 Generation

  • 4 types के offspring मिले
  • Ratio: 9:3:3:1
9
Yellow Round
(Both Dominant)
:
3
Yellow Wrinkled
(1 Dom, 1 Rec)
:
3
Green Round
(1 Dom, 1 Rec)
:
1
Green Wrinkled
(Both Recessive)
7

Sex Determination

🧬 Sex Determination क्या है?

वह biological system जो decide करता है कि कोई organism Male होगा या Female। Genetic, chromosomal, environmental factors पर based।

🧬 Human Chromosomes

  • Total: 23 pairs of chromosomes
  • 22 pairs = Autosomes
  • 1 pair = Sex chromosomes
  • Female: XX
  • Male: XY

👶 Baby का sex कौन decide करता है?

  • Father's sperm decide करता है (Mother नहीं!)
  • Mother's ovum → हमेशा X chromosome carry करता है
  • Sperm में X होगा → X+X = Female (XX)
  • Sperm में Y होगा → X+Y = Male (XY)
XO → Turner's Syndrome (Only in Females — एक X chromosome missing)
XXY → Klinefelter's Syndrome (Only in Males — extra X chromosome)
🦴 PART 2 — SKELETAL SYSTEM
8

Skeletal System — Overview

🦴 Skeletal System क्या है?

206
Adult Human में कुल Bones
300
बच्चों में Bones
(fuse होकर 206 बनती हैं)
80
Axial Skeleton
की bones
126
Appendicular Skeleton
की bones
9

Axial Skeleton

🦴 Axial Skeleton — क्या है?

🦴 Spinal Cord की Bones — Adults में सिर्फ 26!

RegionVertebraeयाद रखें
Cervical (गर्दन)7C1-C7
Thoracic (ऊपरी पीठ)12T1-T12
Lumbar (निचली पीठ)5L1-L5
Sacral5 → fuse → 1 SacrumS1-S5
Coccygeal (Tailbone)4 → fuse → 1 CoccyxTailbone

🦴 Rib Cage — Total: 24 + 1 (Sternum) = 25

True Ribs

1st to 7th pair
Vertebrosternal Ribs

False Ribs

8th to 10th pair
Vertebrochondral Ribs

Floating Ribs

11th & 12th pair
Vertebral Ribs

10

Skull & Ear Bones

💀 Skull की Bones

  • Total: 22 bones
  • Cranial bones: 8 (Brain को protect करती हैं)
  • Facial bones: 14
  • Mandible = Skull की एकमात्र movable bone!
Frontal ×1Parietal ×2 Temporal ×2Occipital ×1 Sphenoid ×1Ethmoid ×1

👂 Ear की Bones

  • Total: 3 × 2 = 6 bones
  • हर कान में 3 bones
Malleus
(Hammer)
Incus
(Anvil)
Stapes
(Stirrup)
11

Appendicular Skeleton

🦾 Appendicular Skeleton — क्या है?

12

Bone Counts — Arm, Hand, Leg, Foot

💪 Arm की Bones (1 arm में)

  • Total: 3 bones
  • Humerus (ऊपरी भुजा)
  • Radius (lower arm — thumb side)
  • Ulna (lower arm — pinky side)

3 × 2 = 6 bones (दोनों arms)

✋ Hand की Bones (1 hand में)

  • Total: 27 bones
  • Phalanges: 14 (fingers)
  • Metacarpals: 5 (palm)
  • Carpals: 8 (wrist)

27 + 3 (arm) = 30 per arm → 60 bones (दोनों arms)

🦵 Leg की Bones (1 leg में)

  • Total: 4 bones
  • Femur (thigh bone — सबसे लंबी bone)
  • Patella (kneecap)
  • Tibia (shinbone)
  • Fibula (calf bone)

4 × 2 = 8 bones (दोनों legs)

🦶 Foot की Bones (1 foot में)

  • Total: 26 bones
  • Tarsals: 7 (ankle)
  • Metatarsals: 5 (arch)
  • Phalanges: 14 (toes)

26 × 2 = 52 bones (दोनों feet)

13

Joints — 3 Types

💧 Synovial Joints

  • Fluid-filled cavity (synovial fluid)
  • Wide range of motion
  • E.g.: Knee, Elbow, Shoulder

🔒 Fibrous Joints

  • Dense connective tissue से जुड़े
  • Little to NO movement
  • E.g.: Skull की sutures, Teeth और jawbone

🦷 Cartilaginous Joints

  • Cartilage से जुड़े — slight movement
  • E.g.: Vertebrae के बीच joints, Ribs + Sternum

⚙️ Types of Synovial Joints

🔵
Ball & Socket

360° rotation (सभी directions में)
E.g. Shoulder, Hip

🚪
Hinge

180° motion (door की तरह open/close)
E.g. Elbow, Knee

🔄
Pivot

Left/right twisting on single axis
E.g. Neck (Atlas-Axis)

↔️
Gliding

Short flat sliding movements
E.g. Wrist, Ankle

🎠
Saddle

2-way movement (up/down + side/side)
No full rotation

🥚
Condyloid

2-way movement
(Oval joints के लिए)

14

Teeth & Dental Formula

🦷 Enamel

Enamel = Body का सबसे कठोर (Hardest) हिस्सा — Calcium phosphate से बनी

🦷 Adult Teeth — Total 32 Permanent Teeth

16 upper jaw + 16 lower jaw (wisdom teeth including)

TypeCount (1 jaw)Function
🔪 Incisors4 (per jaw) = 8 totalBiting और Cutting food
🐺 Canine2 (per jaw) = 4 totalTearing food
🔧 Premolars4 (per jaw) = 8 totalGrinding food
🦷 Molars6 (per jaw) = 12 totalChewing और Crushing food

🥛 Milk Teeth (Baby Teeth)

Total: 20 teeth

Formula: I=2, C=1, M=2 per half jaw

212/212 × 2 = 20

🦷 Permanent Teeth

Total: 32 teeth

Formula: I=2, C=1, PM=2, M=3 per half jaw

2123/2123 × 2 = 32

15

Homologous & Analogous Organs

🔵 Homologous Organs

  • Same structure, different function
  • Common ancestor से inherited होते हैं
  • E.g.: Human arm, Bat's wing, Whale's flipper, Horse's forelimb — सब same bone structure!
  • यह Divergent Evolution का evidence है

🟡 Analogous Organs

  • Different structure, same function
  • Different species में, common ancestor नहीं
  • E.g.: Butterfly का wing + Bird का wing — दोनों उड़ने के काम आते हैं लेकिन structure अलग
  • यह Convergent Evolution का evidence है
16

Quick Revision — Exam Ready!

TopicKey Fact
Father of GeneticsGregor Johan Mendel | Pea plant (Pisum sativum) पर experiment
Law 1 — DominanceContrasting parents cross → सिर्फ dominant trait दिखता है F1 में
Law 2 — SegregationGamete बनते time alleles separate होती हैं | हर gamete = 1 allele
Law 3 — Indep. AssortmentDifferent genes की alleles independently sort होती हैं
Monohybrid F2 ratioPhenotype = 3:1 | Genotype = 1:2:1
Dihybrid F2 ratio9:3:3:1 (4 types of offspring)
Phenotype vs GenotypePhenotype = दिखने वाले traits | Genotype = Genetic makeup
Sex determinationFather's sperm decide करता है | Mother = always X | Father = X या Y
Female chromosomesXX (23 pairs total — 22 autosomal + 1 sex)
Male chromosomesXY
Turner's SyndromeXO — Female में 1 X missing
Klinefelter's SyndromeXXY — Male में extra X
Adult bones206 | Children = 300
Axial bones80 | Appendicular = 126
Spinal cord bones26 (Cervical 7, Thoracic 12, Lumbar 5, Sacral 1, Coccyx 1)
Atlas boneScalp को spine से connect करती है — head support
Rib cage24 ribs + 1 sternum = 25 | True(1-7), False(8-10), Floating(11-12)
Skull bones22 total (Cranial=8, Facial=14) | Mandible = only movable bone
Ear bones6 total (3 per ear) — Malleus, Incus, Stapes
Arm bones3 per arm (Humerus, Radius, Ulna) | Both arms = 6
Hand bones27 per hand (Phalanges 14, Metacarpals 5, Carpals 8)
Leg bones4 per leg (Femur, Patella, Tibia, Fibula) | Both = 8
Foot bones26 per foot (Tarsals 7, Metatarsals 5, Phalanges 14) | Both = 52
FemurThigh bone = Body की सबसे लंबी और मजबूत bone
Ball & Socket joint360° rotation — Shoulder, Hip
Hinge joint180° — Knee, Elbow
Pivot jointLeft/right twist — Neck (Atlas-Axis)
Fibrous jointNo movement — Skull sutures
Cartilaginous jointSlight movement — Vertebrae, Ribs+Sternum
EnamelBody का hardest part — Calcium phosphate से बना
Adult teeth32 | Milk teeth = 20
IncisorsBiting & Cutting | Canine = Tearing | Premolar = Grinding | Molar = Chewing
Dental formula (Adult)2123/2123 × 2 = 32 | Milk = 212/212 × 2 = 20
Homologous organsSame structure, different function — Common ancestor
Analogous organsDifferent structure, same function — No common ancestor
Heredity unitGene (made of DNA)
Dominant trait1 या 2 dominant alleles से express होती है
Recessive traitदोनों alleles recessive हों तभी express होती है